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Occupying diverse habitats, these rodents present a useful model for investigating historical environmental changes that affected the arid, old world belt and drove the distribution and morphological diversification in mammals.
Together, our results suggest that the multi-functionality associated with mouthbrooding constrains morphological diversification in Lake Tanganyika cichlids.
Specifically, our result suggests that the decreased potential for morphological diversification in mouthbrooding fish might constrain trophic diversification.
These clade-specific changes in tetrapods can be tracked down to their extensive morphological diversification in the course of vertebrate land adaptation.
A controversial topic in evolutionary developmental biology is whether morphological diversification in natural populations can be driven by expansions and contractions of amino acid repeats in proteins.
Accordingly, the loss of migration in amphidromous species leads to geographic isolation and is believed to have initiated genetic and morphological diversification in many taxa [ 16, 24, 25].
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By contrast, subgroup II-2 genes experiencing comparatively relaxed purifying selection evolve more rapidly and have continually diversified through gene copy duplications and changes in miR156/529 regulation, which contributes to the morphological diversifications in land plants.
It has been shown that different mechanisms such as cis-regulatory evolution, changes in protein function and post-transcriptional regulation of the Hox genes contribute to morphological diversification (reviewed in e.g., [ 8, 15, 16]).
In the case of some adaptive radiations where there is repeated morphological diversification, this divergence in morphology may also be convergent (termed "replicate adaptive radiation", [ 5]).
However, we are still not clear about the abortion of the ventral stamens that has been involved in the evolutionary shifts of stamen number during the morphological diversification of zygomorphy in Lamiales s.l.l
Alternatively, if the genetic/functional constraints that control axes of morphological diversification originate deeper in the cichlid phylogeny and are shared by all three assemblages, parallel divergence may reflect the role of contingency.
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