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Firstly, populations from higher altitudes and cooler climate are exposed to more variable environments—higher range of temperatures, such as high variability in annual or diurnal temperature.
We also expect that in more variable environments, higher adult mortality and higher reproductive investment co-evolve along a basic reproduction/survival trade-off [50], [51].
Extra copies of genes involved in cell motility may also be advantageous, making it possible to move around in more variable environments.
It has been suggested that more variable environments may select for types with better regulation, and that this may alter the sensitivity of key phytoplankton species to environmental changes (Flynn et al. 2012).
Alternatively, the current non-stationarity of climate may have shifted the playing field; this may mean that species that evolved in more variable environments are now often successful invaders.
An empirical study of metabolic network structure in bacteria found that metabolic networks of taxa from more variable environments were significantly more modular than networks of those that evolved under more constant conditions (Parter et al. 2007).
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Consequently kaka start breeding at an earlier age than kea do and they are less playful, show less complex play behaviour (social play including objects) and are more neophobic than the kea in their seasonally more variable environment", said Dr Gajdon in email.
Measurement of the heritability of a trait is relative in a more variable environment, the environment has a bigger influence on the total variation of the trait.
Our finding of no effect on male or female fitness does not, of course, preclude the possibility that the Wolbachia strain infecting our population has a positive effect outside the laboratory, where flies are expected to encounter a more variable environment.
Facultative bacteria that live both in hosts and in the outside world are exposed to a more variable environment than the former classes, but less variable than the multiple class that spans widely different habitats.
In the field, plants are expected to be subjected to higher levels of stress and a more variable environment, both of which may be responsible for higher antioxidant content in the wild species in previous work.
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