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Possibly more open vegetation (savanna) may stimulate mixed mating systems while selfing may be an ecological response to more closed vegetation types (rainforest).
Level III, from the pleniglacial interstade (OIS 3), reflects a complex period in which three warmer woodland phases alternated with periods of more open vegetation.
Soil characteristics did not differ between the edges and the interiors, but aboveground biomass was significantly lower at the edges, suggesting that edges have more open vegetation and provide more microsites suitable for colonisation.
Controlling for an effect of time since marking, survival was substantially lower in a year affected by a severe drought, and was higher at a site with more open vegetation structure.
In parallel, pollen data indicate fluctuations of herbaceous, afromontane taxa and charred grass cuticles, suggesting more open vegetation in the lowland regions and an increase in cloud forest and/or afromontane vegetation at higher altitudes within the Congolese region.
Finally, subcluster Y3 can be associated with the telocratic phase, characterised by the influence of a more oceanic climate (from ca. 2500 14C age BP) with declining temperatures, higher humidity, and milder seasonal contrasts, which contributed to the development of more open vegetation and infertile soils.
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In particular, periods of maximum glaciation might have reduced rainforest cover, resulting in the appearance of more open and deciduous vegetation types in many parts of the region [[ 52- 57], but see [ 58]].
Overall, the vegetation on ultramafic soils often has a relative shorter stature and more open aspect, compared to vegetation on non-ultramafic soils.
Moreover, among these related species, P. luisae is the unique known to grown in swamp forest, a vegetation formation frequently more open and exposed to seasonality than the humid and shaded forests where the most of Philodendron species occurs.
This simple binary classification procedure is unrealistic for images with relatively large pixels (e.g., 30-m pixel Landsat), where a single pixel is likely to be a mix of denser vegetation patches and more open interspaces.
Overall, the late-glacial vegetation cover had a more open and patchy character than inferred from previous pollen studies as assessment of the vegetation succession based on macrofossil evidence is essential.
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