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Structural equation model invokes a measurement model that defines latent variables using one or more observed variables and a structural model that imputes relationships between latent variables.

Factor analysis (FA) related to principal component analysis, generates an unobserved or latent variable which mainly compiles variations in three or more observed variables.

SEM is a combination of two components: (1) a measurement model that defines latent variables by using one or more observed variables, and (2) a structural regression model that links latent variables together (Kline 2011).

A latent variable is a variable that cannot be measured but is inferred from one or more observed variables [ 5].

Preliminary analyses next examined whether constructs could be represented by one or more latent variables, which are unmeasured factors or constructs that are estimated via two or more observed variables.

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Although these approaches are still at risk of being misled by unknown confounders and measurement errors, in contrast to MR, adding more meaningful observed variables to the model may help to robustly handle unaccounted-for factors or high correlations among variables.

We show that the AIPW estimator that is based on augmentation using the full set of observed variables is more efficient than the AIPW estimator that is based on augmentation using a subset of observed variables.

The observed variables might typically be the results of three or more diagnostic tests, none of them being a gold standard.

Once ESEM allows items to have factor loadings in more than one factor, the factor co-variance tend to diminish, because the observed variables (items) are already correlated altogether.

No significant differences in patient characteristics were found any more between C1-stage and C0-stage patients (Table 1), thus precluding bias of the observed variables.

More specifically, it is a factor extraction method used to form uncorrelated linear combinations of the observed variables, which is then used to obtain the initial factor solution, when a correlation matrix is singular.

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