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Native species often suffer reduced growth when grown in the same soil for consecutive generations (negative plant soil feedback), whereas invasive species are more likely unaffected or positively affected by growing in the same soil for several successive generations (neutral or positive plant soil feedback, respectively) (Klironomos 2002).
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Such spurious associations [9] [11] can occur when the disease frequency varies across subpopulations, resulting in affected individuals being more likely than unaffected individuals to be sampled from certain subpopulations [12].
Whereas for the latter it mattered who was the transmitting parent (27), more likely to be the unaffected mother with an affected sib, no such effect was seen for age of onset.
This cannot be simply a result of collinearity as the confidence intervals also remained largely unaffected, more likely indicating that the observed association with number of children was confounded by the effect of breastfeeding.
Specifically, we were able to assign older, unaffected men (more likely not to be gene carriers) to a different liability class than younger, unaffected men who may be gene carriers but who have not yet presented with the disease.
Previous cancer diagnosis showed the strongest association with increased CAM use; women with any previous cancer were 17 times more likely to use CAM than unaffected women.
HBV and HCV-positive individuals would be more likely to have fibrosis than unaffected individuals, such that a lack of association between HBV or HCV positivity and vitamin D levels argue against reverse causality as an explanation for our results.
Several studies have shown that cancer patients and survivors are more likely to use CAM than unaffected individuals in the general population, with up to 83% reporting CAM use [ 5- 8].
Most striking was the relationship between rightward asymmetry of the planum temporale and atypical language (R = 0.70, P < 0.0001); patients with a longer planum temporale in the right (unaffected) hemisphere were more likely to have atypical language dominance.
In fact, de novo mutations are more likely to occur in schizophrenia patients than unaffected siblings [74] and damaging de novo mutations in schizophrenia patients were found to disrupt genes regulating neurogenesis in the postmortem human brain [21].
Affected relatives are more likely to have age information than the unaffected, which represents a further source of bias.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com