Extant research to identify patent value indicators has so far relied on expert estimates of patent value, exploited patent renewal data, or depended on more indirect measures of patent value.
Measuring fitness is challenging, but other surrogates (such as reproduction) are likely more closely related to fitness than more indirect measures such as herbivory or herbivore abundance [35].
Typical indicators of population health are life expectancy, cause-specific mortality rates, numbers of new and existing cases of specific diseases (i.e., incidence and prevalence), perceived health, the occurrence of physical and mental limitations and disability, but also more indirect measures, such as absenteeism, incapacity of work, and the use of medical facilities and the associated costs.
Another difference is that the life span assay is likely to be a much more indirect measure of the degenerative effects of the Aβ42 polypeptide.
We also scored shortening of the lifespan, which is a more indirect measure of organismal dysfunction caused by expression of polyQ40 in the muscle cells.
The popular trackers here do not measure brainwaves, and so infer a description of sleep from one or more indirect measurements.
The intention is to rely more on indirect measures that are WTO compatible: technology improvement, investments in infrastructure and the creation of a favourable institutional and economic environment.
In recent genome-wide studies on nucleosome positioning the paradigm shifted from the identification of nucleosomal DNA fragments directly by means of a reduced cutting frequency to a more indirect one that measured the abundance of recovered nucleosome sized DNA fragments by microarrays [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19] or by deep sequencing [20], [21],[22],[23],[24],[25],[26],[27],[28].
Another, more indirect approach to measure the intracellular generation of ROS, the occurrence of carbonylated proteins, a biomarker for intracellular oxidative stress, was investigated.
16 More indirect techniques for measuring muscle mass include bioelectrical impedance analysis which is non-invasive but less accurate compared with DEXA.
In human studies, PET, magnetoencephalography and functional MRI have offered a more indirect and global measure of V5/MT+ neuronal populations, and have largely concurred that activity increases with coherence (Cheng et al., 1995; Rees et al., 2000; Braddick et al., 2001; Nakamura et al., 2003; Aspell et al., 2005; Handel et al., 2007; Becker et al., 2008).
