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Whether dicyemids are intermediate between Protozoa and Metazoa (as represented by their "Mesozoa" classification) or degenerate species of more complex metazoans is controversial.
Recent studies show that sponges have a wide repertoire of genes many of which are involved in diseases in more complex metazoans.
This is because the complex biomineralizing organic matrix synthesized de novo by "more complex" metazoans (such as molluscs, urchins, and vertebrates) did not need to be evolved by A. willeyana.
There is a single ATG8 gene in yeast, which has been duplicated more than once in the genomes of more complex metazoans to generate the GABARAP, GABARAPL2/GATE-16 and MAP1LC3 (LC3) genes.
The ease by which yeast can be manipulated together with similarities of yeast cells to cells of more complex metazoans makes many yeast species, (e.g., the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe) very attractive models for the investigation of conserved evolutionary processes occurring in eukaryotes [ 4].
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Some recent studies have already indicated the possibility to use MS-based methods for the discrimination of more complex, metazoan species such as insects.
It has previously been found that sponges possess genes/proteins for many advanced physiological processes usually linked to more complex metazoan phyla [ 31, 47].
While the mode of regulation of this suite of genes has been studied in the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, how this gene set is coordinately regulated in the larger and more complex metazoan genomes is not understood.
There is some evidence that non-coding but functional (likely regulatory) DNA increases with the complexity of the organism (see, e.g., [ 1]), so that taking just the gene loci into account is very likely to be misleading, more so for complex metazoans.
As more complex multi-cellular metazoan species evolved, actinin's cross-linking activity was required in an increasing number of cell biological contexts in different cell and tissue types.
For example, a biofilm may be more complex than the simplest metazoans but is considerably less ordered.
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