Twin and adoption study designs are now being used to examine gene environment interplay, the effects of environmental risk factors, co-morbidity, phenotype definition, and developmental change.
Further large-scale studies are required to assess the impact of the MHO phenotype on morbidity related to obesity for example, CVD, cancers, respiratory diseases, and depression.
Survival analysis was used to show how LVH defined according to the above phenotype influenced morbidity and mortality to allow comparison with previous work.
Autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI), the first technique used to repair focal cartilage defects [ 23- 25], is associated with donor site morbidity, loss of chondrocyte phenotype upon ex vivo expansion and inferior fibrocartilage formation at the defect site [ 26- 28].
Morbidity associated with asthma phenotypes was defined in terms of prevalence (number of cases/number of children at risk at the considered period) and incidence (number of new cases/number of children at risk at the considered period after having excluded those that developed the same asthma phenotype in the previous periods).
There are many studies on chronic pain reporting anatomical and functional changes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), an area also implicated in the common co-morbidities of depression-like phenotype and anxiety-like behaviors in both human [ 67] and animal studies [ 68].
Importantly this sort of change, which may be more predictive of subsequent morbidity, may be a better phenotype in the search for genetic pathways involved in cognitive ageing.
Because little is known about the mechanism of artemisinin resistance and no estimates exist on related morbidity and mortality if this phenotype spreads, modeling efforts are particularly useful to guide future planning.
Selection bias and co-morbidities might have affected the phenotype under investigation [ 11].
Clearer characterization of psoriasis phenotype, genotype, co-morbidities and the risk of adverse events from therapies should yield a clearer strategy for treatment in the future.
