Aging affects cardiomyocytes at several subcellular and molecular levels, including alterations at the level of the DNA, increased oxidative stress, changes in gene/protein expression and posttranslational modifications, and the handling of cellular 'waste' material by autophagy [ 13– 15].
Aging affects cardiomyocytes at several subcellular and molecular levels, including alterations in the gene/protein expression and posttranslational modifications such as advanced glycation endproducts and protein oxidation, changes at the DNA level for example mutations and telomere shortening, oxidative stress increase (ROS formation), and decrease of autophagy [ 21].
Thus, the findings of our study suggest that there are no significant associations between GSTM1 and GSTP1 polymorphisms and sperm parameters at conventional or at molecular levels including OS status, sperm chromatin integrity or maturity in Iranian infertile men with OAT and normozoospermia.
Microgravity has been demonstrated to have profound effects on both cellular and molecular levels, including changes in cell morphology [ 1, 2], alterations of proliferation, growth or differentiation [ 3, 4], modification of gene expression [ 5– 7], and changes in signal transduction cascades [ 5, 8].
However, many well-described lncRNAs, such as Air and Xist, are poorly conserved [ 4], and increasing studies have demonstrated that a number of lncRNAs are not transcriptional noise but have important functions, such as regulating gene expression at various molecular levels, including protein, RNA, miRNA, and DNA [ 5– 7].
These earlier studies together point that uncovering regulatory mechanisms on aquaporins at the molecular level, including transcriptional and post-translational modifications, are indispensable to understand the physiological significance of L pr down-regulation upon salinity/osmotic stress in plants.
A total of six R genes at the Pik locus were characterized at the molecular level including Pikm from Tsuyuake (Ashikawa et al. 2008), Pik from Kusabue (Zhai et al. 2011), Pikp from K60 (Yuan et al. 2011), Pik from Kanto51 (Ashikawa et al. 2012), Pi1 from C101LAC (Hua et al. 2012), and Pikh from K3 (Zhai et al. 2014).
Various processes can cause gene duplication on the molecular level, including unequal crossovers, retroposition, or whole chromosome/genome duplication [ 6- 8].
Similarities between T. foetus and Giardia spp. have been identified at the molecular level, including molecular and genetic traits, suggesting that they are of sister lineages [ 43].
Glycans play highly specific, specialized roles at the molecular level, including cell-cell signaling, virus-receptor binding, immune responses, and protein folding and solubility.
In addition to clinical phenotyping, this population has been characterized at the molecular level including proteomics, metabolomics [ 11], and now transcriptomics using RNA sequencing.
