Application examples at the molecular level include enzyme reaction networks that account for spatial diffusion (Weimar 2002) and signaling pathways (Wurthner et al. 2000, Kier et al. 2005).
A few apoplast studies in perennial plants at the molecular level include xylem sap proteome from apple, peach, pear, poplar, as well as identification of the leaf apoplast antioxidative system in response to pox virus in plum [ 21- 24].
This also will speed up the effort to better understand how toxins interact with bodies and cells at a molecular level - including the interaction of genes and toxins that may or may not be contributing to a rise in certain diseases such as leukemia in children and brain cancer.
These earlier studies together point that uncovering regulatory mechanisms on aquaporins at the molecular level, including transcriptional and post-translational modifications, are indispensable to understand the physiological significance of L pr down-regulation upon salinity/osmotic stress in plants.
A total of six R genes at the Pik locus were characterized at the molecular level including Pikm from Tsuyuake (Ashikawa et al. 2008), Pik from Kusabue (Zhai et al. 2011), Pikp from K60 (Yuan et al. 2011), Pik from Kanto51 (Ashikawa et al. 2012), Pi1 from C101LAC (Hua et al. 2012), and Pikh from K3 (Zhai et al. 2014).
Various processes can cause gene duplication on the molecular level, including unequal crossovers, retroposition, or whole chromosome/genome duplication [ 6- 8].
Similarities between T. foetus and Giardia spp. have been identified at the molecular level, including molecular and genetic traits, suggesting that they are of sister lineages [ 43].
Glycans play highly specific, specialized roles at the molecular level, including cell-cell signaling, virus-receptor binding, immune responses, and protein folding and solubility.
In addition to clinical phenotyping, this population has been characterized at the molecular level including proteomics, metabolomics [ 11], and now transcriptomics using RNA sequencing.
However, the triple-negative subtype has been shown to be heterogeneous at the molecular level, including various subtypes with distinct clinical behavior and phenotype of drug sensitivity [ 32].
Subsequently, G. lamblia was divided into several species on the basis of differences found at the ultrastructural and molecular level, including G. microti (rodents), G. psittaci (psittacine birds), and G. ardeae (herons) (Adam 2001).
