Mechanical deformation applied at the joint or tissue level is transmitted through the macroscale extracellular matrix to the microscale local matrix, where it is transduced to cells within these tissues and modulates tissue growth, maintenance, and repair.
A smart cell culture system with the capability of sequentially delivering multiple factors in specific growth stages, like the mechanism of the natural extracellular matrix modulating tissue formation, is attractive for enhancing cell activity and controlling cell fate.
Fibroblasts also secrete numerous growth factors and cytokines that act on other cell types thereby modulating tissue repair and scarring [ 68, 69].
CAPE has antithrombotic (by modulating tissue factor expression at a posttranscriptional level in endothelial cells) [ 17], antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory [ 18, 19], anticancer [ 20], antiatherosclerotic, antioxidative [ 16, 19, 21], immunostimulatory, and tumor growth inhibition activities.
Furthermore, UG can modulate tissue transglutaminase.
Unsurprisingly, growth hormone receptor (GHR), which modulates tissue-specific activity of GH [ 16], is upregulated concurrently with elevated salinity and the onset of smoltification in rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon, respectively [ 17, 18].
The context specificity of Ey-dependent growth suggests that there are different signaling pathways in the different disc regions that modulate the effect of Ey overexpression on tissue growth.
First, HIF-1α is a positive regulator of connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) activity, which modulates function of the transforming growth factor β (TGFß) family, including TGFß-1, -2, -3 and bone morphogenic protein 4 and 7 (BMP4 and 7).
Thus, there is a functional requirement for macrophages during the wound healing and blastema formation stage that directly affects subsequent tissue growth, whereas during the tissue outgrowth stage macrophages mainly modulate only tissue patterning.
CCN family protein 2 (CCN2), also known as connective tissue growth factor, is a secreting protein that modulates multiple cellular events.
