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However, the output power waveform from a directly modulated laser is not an exact replica of the modulation current and its instantaneous optical frequency varies with time depending on the changes in optical power and the extinction ratio (ER) (an effect also known as frequency chirp).

A 785 nm frequency modulated laser is maximally attenuated to a source strength of approximately 10 μW.

An amplitude-modulated laser is impinged on the nanotube array with electric and magnetic fields E → L = A L x ^ − i y ^ 1 + μ cos Ω t − z / c e − i ω t − k z, Open image in new window B → L = c k → × E → L ω, Open image in new window (1) A L 2 = A 0 2 e − x − l c 2 / r 0 2, Open image in new window (2).

The optical response of this device to the pulsed and modulated continuous laser was measured from the infrared to ultraviolet band.

The active region of the directly modulated laser (DML) is optimized in terms of the number of QWs and barrier height.

The modulated laser light is split into the reference and sample arm and recombined and detected by two balanced photoreceivers (1817-FC, New Focus, US).

The remaining part of the modulated laser beam is directed to the scanning unit of a conventional CM (Olympus FV300) to excite the biological sample stained with fluorescence probes.

If a mode-locked laser is modulated to form a train of pulses, its spectrum is seen to consist of the carrier frequency surrounded by a closely spaced comb of optical sideband frequencies with a spacing equal to the pulse repetition frequency (Fig. 16).

The modulated intensity of the laser is monitored with a photodetector (1201, New Focus) that collects the small percentage of light that is transmitted through the back laser mirror; the voltage from the detector was sampled using an analog-to-digital convertor (DAS1802, Keithley).

From Eqs. (8) and (9), it is evident that the only controllable imaging parameters governing the photothermal temperature change are the chopping frequency (i.e., how rapidly the photothermal laser is amplitude modulated) and the laser irradiance (a function of spot size and laser power).

Applications rely on measurements of the steady-state emission spectrum when continuous wave (CW) sources are used, on measurements of the time-resolved (TR) fluorescence signal when pulsed laser sources are employed (time domain), or on measurements of frequency domain signals (amplitudes and phase-shift measurements) when modulated laser sources are employed [ 8].