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Substantia nigra activity to performance of a simple motor task (button press) during both low-level visual stimulation and cognitive task performance was modulated by peripheral inflammatory challenge.
Furthermore, inflammation-associated mood change reduced connectivity of sACC to amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and superior temporal sulcus, which was modulated by peripheral interleukin-6.
Correspondingly, in rodents, brain dopamine levels are modulated by peripheral administration of IFN-α (a potent inducer of IL-6) and other inflammatory cytokines (25,26).
This basic pattern of autonomic activity is in turn modulated by peripheral signals originating from mechano- and metaboreceptors within the muscle, which reflexively modulate sympathetic tone on the basis of the mechanical and metabolic conditions of the contracting muscle.
For example, Fischer and colleagues (1993) proposed three parallel pathways, all of them including SC, frontal eye field (FEF), and posterior parietal cortex (PPC) for generating express, fast-regular or slow-regular saccades; the switching between pathways can be modulated by peripheral attention.
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In addition, they can be modulated by a peripheral reflex mechanism because the collateral branches of neurokinin-containing C-fibers project to the PTG neurons [ 48] and enhance cholinergic transmission in the PTG, probably via neurokinin releases [ 49].
Interestingly CREB and TORC1 signaling is known to be modulated by AMPK in peripheral tissue [13], [36], [37], suggesting that AMPK may also work through CREB to control plasticity.
The authors suggested that these two regions are modulated by changes in peripheral somatic states and involved in the flexible representation of reinforcement [ 37].
These findings suggest that sensory hypersensitivity may be modulated by minimizing a potential peripheral source of pain, the zygapophyseal joint, in patients with chronic WAD.
The cough reflex is not a static phenomenon, but is a flexible entity modulated by many central and peripheral neuronal mechanisms, sometimes termed 'cough plasticity' [ 1].
In addition, this binomial peripheral crosstalk is modulated by several physiological factors which include both peripheral neuroendocrine and central nervous system (CNS) mechanisms.
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modulated by remote
modulated by regional
modulated by secondary
modulated by noradrenergic
modulated by extracellular
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modulated by motivational
modulated by glucocorticoid
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