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MicroRNAs are used throughout all kingdoms and have been shown to be exploited by viruses to modulate their host environment.
Viruses facilitate their replication and propagation by subverting host cellular pathways and processes, and constantly adapt to and modulate their host's environment.
R. microplus has developed various mechanisms to modulate their host's haemostatic and immune defences as part of its adaptation to a blood feeding environment [ 36].
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A mechanistic understanding of how plant pathogens modulate their hosts is critical for rationally engineered disease resistance in agricultural systems.
Microbial viruses modulate their hosts directly through mortality and horizontal gene transfer, and indirectly by re-programming host metabolisms during infection.
The versions of Gp18 are associated with mobile elements; this suggests a mechanism whereby copies of the tail sheath genes may be exchanged, thereby enabling reassortment between related phages and possibly modulating their host range.
Due to their large coding capacity, poxviruses have developed a set of strategies to modulate their interaction with the host.
It should be noted that the suppressing effect of fudoh onto virulence might be meaningful itself if the bacteria will not kill host animals by modulating their virulence to coexist with host animals.
Undoubtedly, there are multiple mechanisms that different viruses exploit to modulate autophagy in their host cells, presumably to their replicative advantage.
Secretion pathways are an important means by which intracellular symbiotic and pathogenic bacteria modulate interactions with their hosts.
We tested the hypothesis that toxin-like proteins exist in viruses and that they act to modulate functions of their hosts.
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