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When modifier mutations are co-expressed in Aβ42-expressing flies, the distribution of phenotypes is shifted to more mild phenotypes in the case of a suppressor, or more severe phenotypes in a case of an enhancer (Fig. S1A C and Table 1).
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Inactivation of polycomb-related epigenetic modifiers through gene mutations are likely early events in UC formation [ 13, 14].
Since SPINK1 mutations are proposed a modifier role, we also investigated its interaction with the ACE gene variant.
The enhanced pigmentation we observe with the modifier mutations cannot be due to MSL1 haploinsufficiency, but rather the modifiers must make proteins with altered activities.
The dominant behaviour of the new modifier mutations might be explained if modifier MSL1 subunits dimerised in vivo with wild-type polypeptides made from the other allele.
Because most C. glabrata strains did not exhibit the ts phenotype in response to calcineurin inhibitors, it suggests that additional modifier mutations might be present that suppress the ts phenotype.
Since, SPINK1 mutations are proposed to play a modifier role, we also investigated whether any association exists with the I/D polymorphism in the ACE gene.
Among syndromic HSCR cases, length of aganglionosis mostly correlates with penetrance of a mutation (49a), and strongly penetrant mutations are not dependent on a weak modifier like sex.
Oncogenic activating mutations are now known to occur in a number of epigenetic modifiers (i.e. IDH1/2, EZH2, DNMT3A), pinpointing epigenetic pathways that are involved in tumorigenesis.
Furthermore, many of these conditions are heterogeneous, suggesting that the expressivity of gene mutations is modulated by genetic modifiers that play roles in epidermal differentiation.
Surprisingly, after extraneous secondary mutations were removed by recombination, some homozygous modifier males were recovered which also showed solid red eyes.
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