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Alternatively, modified bile levels in the host could lead to altered intracellular c-di-GMP of intestinal pathogens, leading to increased probability or severity of disease.
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One should note the paradox that bile acid sequestrants, by lowering bile acid levels, reduce their activation of FXR, and hence reduce FXR activation, which has been thought to lead to lower glucose levels (25), yet the modified bile acid, which activates FXR, was demonstrated to have a glucose-lowering effect as well.
Genetically or chemically modified bile composition was shown to induce sclerosing cholangitis and liver fibrosis in a number of animal models ("toxic bile concept").
Denervation did not modify bile flow, or bile salts, cholesterol, or phospholipid concentration or output.
In addition, the gut flora modifies bile acid metabolism and FXR/TGR5 signaling and hence contributes indirectly to the development of NAFLD (Tremaroli et al., 2012).
Statins can modify bile cholesterol and, thus, the formation of gallstones.
Due to their location, cholangiocytes are able to modify bile quickly and efficiently as it travels through the biliary tree.
Two days before I reached 36 weeks, my bile levels rose.
Several species of commensal bacteria have been shown to modify primary bile salts to secondary bile salts via 7α-dehydroxylation in vitro [28].
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We also investigated the ability of cecal flora from untreated and clindamycin-treated mice to modify the bile salt taurocholate.
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