The increasing reliance on financial drivers and devolution of responsibility to the non-government sector, reflecting neoliberal modes of governance, is a pertinent case in point and warrants further critical scrutiny.
In light of this development, local governments might want to seek new modes of governance that allow the empowerment of the citizenry to a greater degree than one was once accustomed to.
This change also requires that we adapt our modes of governance.
For this reason, Mr. Paxton and most experts on European Fascism consider it inappropriate to apply the term to societies of the Middle East that have little experience of democracy and whose modes of governance spring from a different matrix.
In Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), Horkheimer and Adorno argued that the celebration of reason by thinkers of the 18th-century Enlightenment had led to the development of technologically sophisticated but oppressive and inhumane modes of governance, exemplified in the 20th century by fascism and totalitarianism.
It seems clear to me that if we are to achieve a world that is food secure, where every human being had enough food to live a healthy life, the very foundations of the industrial oil-based food system must be contested, the very nature of food as a pure private good should be questioned and the balance of power should shift from agribusiness oligopolies to polycentric modes of governance.
Fig. 3 Four types of modes of governance (original).
The second dimension by which we group modes of governance is the level of closure.
In some natural sense, these modes of governance are therefore not so relevant for citizens.
Then, we put together a conceptual framework that situates modes of governance into an ordered field.
Fig. 2 A two-dimensional classification of conventional modes of governance (original).
