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These three modes of branching are used repeatedly to form a stereotypical pattern of branches in the lung.
Recent studies identified three modes of branching in mouse lung: domain branching, planar bifurcation and orthogonal bifurcation (34).
Lung branching morphogenesis is strongly stereotyped and involves the recursive use of only three modes of branching.
The model showed that the biochemical interactions between FGF10, SHH, and its receptor Patched (Ptc), as graphically summarized in Fig. 1A, are sufficient to explain the emergence of FGF10 patterns consistent with the two main modes of branching in the developing lung: lateral branching and bifurcations.
In addition, despite the defects already described and in particular the decreased branch number, examples of all three modes of branching were visible in Celsr1 Crsh and Vangl2 Lp homozygous lungs (Fig. 4C, D and data not shown) providing further evidence that Celsr1 and Vangl2 are part of a general mechanism governing bud/branch formation.
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These results suggest that mode of branching and reduced peristomes are homoplastic at the ordinal level in pleurocarpous mosses.
To investigate the mode of branching of 1.5 kDa dextran, simulations of various branching scenarios and resistance to glucoamylase degradation were performed.
FGF9-dependent upregulation of distal FGF10 expression renders the lateral mode of branching more favorable (supplementary material Fig. S2).
These evolutionary differences in preferred mode of branching between pooid and ehrhartoid grasses, on the one hand, and panicoid grasses on the other, strongly affect the different architecture of domesticated cereal crops derived from them.
To simulate the bifurcation mode of branching, we use a growth rate of 3.6 µm.h−1, which is close to the growth speed estimated from the data of Metzger et al. (Metzger et al., 2008).
According to this hypothesis, the observed end-to-end mode of branching could be mutually regulated, vessel sprouts being able to orientate one another by shedding MVs associated to guiding filopodia.
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