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However, a large sample size is required to ensure sufficient statistical power to detect genes contributing subtle to moderate effects to phenotypic traits.
As genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are becoming more popular, two approaches, among others, could be considered in order to improve statistical power for identifying genes contributing subtle to moderate effects to human diseases.
Our study results underscore the advantage of bivariate over univariate association approaches in detecting pleiotropic genetic variants for complex diseases/traits, especially given that these variants quite often have only moderate effects to an individual phenotype/trait and hence may be insensitive to regular univariate genetic association analysis.
Where colocalisation tests have been naively applied, we expect the null hypothesis of colocalisation has been rejected too readily, although this will affect loci with small and moderate effects to a greater degree than those with large effects.
Prior LD information has been taken advantage of for calculating the weights of SNPs to account for the correlations among SNPs, but it will lose the power if most SNPs only contribute small to moderate effects to the trait of interest, which is often the case as shown in several studies of complex diseases [ 18, 21].
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Another three patients showed moderate effect to steroid.
One patient (out of 2) in non-infectious group showed moderate effect to prednisolone.
The limitations include inadequate power to discover small to moderate effects, mild to moderate levels of distress at baseline, and the lack of a control group.
Therefore, in replication studies, the moderate effects have to be the basis for analysis.
Six months later, most outcomes showed effect sizes that fell in the range of moderate effects (0.4 to 0.8), indicating lasting and clinically relevant improvements (Fig. 1).
In terms of depression, ten studies observed self-criticism, with weak to moderate effect sizes, to significantly predict an increase in symptoms over time.
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