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(4) Studies of how biases toward working with "masculine" cognitive styles for example, toward centralized, hierarchical control models of causation as opposed to "feminine" (contextual, interactive, diffused) models—have impaired scientific understanding, for example, in studies of slime-mold (Keller 1985b) and molecular biology (Spanier 1995).
Only Cārvāka hints at the causal closure of the physical world, and the four models of causation entertained in Indian philosophy allows interactions between matter and consciousness, material particles and mathematical entities, non-living and living beings, accumulated merits and demerits of past actions and present events, and so on.
However, where strong adaptationism is coupled with genetic determinism and unidirectional models of causation it becomes problematical.
Disease models of causation are almost universal in rural India and in low and middle-income countries for illnesses of short duration (e.g. fever, diarrhea [ 25, 26]).
We conclude that it is vitally important for epidemiologic research to study "interactions" and, in particular, acquired susceptibility to disease through the use of appropriate models of causation.
We do not think either of the camps, both consisting of highly respected evolutionary thinkers, are making a schoolboy error; rather, they are separated by different models of causation.
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As we have seen in Section 3 above, this would not be exceptional as such: locomotion need not be caused on the transmission model of causation.
Hume, by contrast, entirely rejects this a priori demonstrative model of causation and replaces the rationalist ideal, once and for all, with the opposing Newtonian inductive ideal.
Two questions, the answers to which will help to discern naturalist traits in these systems, are: what are the ultimate constituents of the empirical world, and what is the accepted model of causation for a particular school?
To understand perceptions and perceptual states as causally ordered, in the sense that efficient causal and not merely lawful or regular or final causal relations obtain among them, is to subscribe to an event oriented model of causation.
Further lending credence to the claim that Leibniz postulates a substance-accident model of causation, it appears that whenever Leibniz describes the causal relation found within substances, even those depictions that are best understood as metaphorical, those depictions themselves point to a non-homogeneous account of the intrasubstantial causal relata.
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