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Oral tolerance has been applied to prevent and treat autoimmune disease in several animal models, including arthritis.
Indeed, PI3Kγ-deficient mice are also shown to be protected in a number of disease models including arthritis, psoriasis, lupus, colitis, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, atherosclerosis, and asthmatic models 29, 32– 32.
An alternative approach to antigen-specific vaccination is based on evidence from animal models, including arthritis and experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, that antigen-specific T-cell lines or clones prevent priming of autoimmune diseases [ 59].
Indirect evidence that neutrophil apoptosis occurs in vivo has now been supported by work highlighting the potential of driving neutrophil apoptosis as a therapeutic strategy in a range of murine models, including arthritis [ 8].
Despite the low engraftment efficiency, MSC-based procedures have been found to exert a therapeutic effect in various disease models, including arthritis, possibly through their trophic effect and their anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive activities, which can significantly affect the local environment and resident endogenous tissue progenitor cells in carrying out the regenerative function.
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Notably, PGRN showed therapeutic effects in various TNF-mediated inflammatory arthritis models, including collagen-induced arthritis and spontaneous arthritis in the TNF-transgenic model (Liu, 2011; Liu and Bosch, 2012; Tang et al., 2011; Wei et al., 2014a).
These compounds have already been successfully used as anti-inflammatory drugs in several experimental models, including rheumatoid arthritis [37], colitis [38] and traumatic brain injury [39].
PAR2 activation reportedly displays both pro- [14], [17] and anti- inflammatory [10], [12], [13], [15], [16] responses in different disease models, including asthma, arthritis, and irritable bowel syndrome.
Findings of previous studies have identified a role for PAR-2 in modulation of inflammation in rodent models, including inflammatory arthritis [ 11].
Three treatment options, i.e., electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve, pharmacological agonists of α7nAChR, and modulation of neuron function, have been found effective in various disease models, including sepsis, arthritis, and ischemia-reperfusion injuries.
However, aberrant Th17 responses and IL-17A production have been implicated in a variety of autoimmune diseases and animal models, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA; Chabaud et al. 2000; Kirkham et al. 2006) and multiple sclerosis (MS; Matusevicius et al. 1999; Graber et al. 2008).
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