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For the non-linear buckling analyses, the tower members were all modelled using beam elements in order to model buckling (out-of-plane deformation).
The RC frame was modelled using beam with hinges elements.
The main legs were modelled using beam elements, while the bracing members were modelled using truss elements.
In this study, the discrete element approach was used to simulate reinforcement, where the reinforcement is modelled using beam elements connected to the concrete at certain shared mesh nodes as shown in Fig. 10.
The beam is modelled using beam elements and the inverse problem of finding the spring stiffness, given the natural frequency, is shown to be related to the problem of a rank-one modification of an eigenvalue problem.
The RC elements were modelled using beam with hinges elements, and to simulate the materials, the Mander et al. (1988) and Menegotto and Pinto (1973) proposal were adopted, respectively.
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Frequency response equations of a cracked beam is modelled using Euler-Bernoulli beam method and Hamilton's principle and its results are verified via modal tests on a sample beam.
The tunnel structure and the track are modelled using solid and beam finite elements while the ground is modelled using boundary elements.
The discrete supported track is modelled using finite Timoshenko beam element, which takes into account both the vertical and the lateral rail vibration valid up to 1500 Hz.
The structure is modelled using one-dimensional beam elements for the steel profile and two-dimensional shell elements for the concrete slab, where the two types of element are interconnected by means of special-purpose link elements.
The lattice tower was modelled using either a model made up of solely beam elements or using a model made up of combined beam and truss elements.
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