In the case of immunogenic tumours, single-agent CTLA4 blockade was enough to induce tumour shrinkage, whereas in other models anti-CTLA4 synergised with other treatment modalities to induce efficacious antitumour immune responses (reviewed in [35]).
An active immunization may provide a non-toxic therapeutic modality able to induce anti-tumor immune responses in patients with cancer [ 51].
Additionally, the modalities used to induce MoDC maturation differ between the conducted studies and ours, which can result in functional differences.
These clinical studies paved the way to the development of orally bioavailable small molecule modality that is designed to induce ribosomes to selectively read through some premature stop codons during mRNA translation, [19], however, raised some controversies regarding its application in other premature stop codons.
Indeed, a chemotherapeutic agent-specific cancer ICD modality presents the potential to induce in vivo an "anticancer vaccine effect" by merging tumor cell kill and antitumor immunity within a single paradigm.
Moreover, varying modalities have been used to induce DC maturation in these comparative studies, e.g., TNFα, lipopolysaccharides or CD40 ligation [ 12, 13], as well as different sources of antigen, e.g, soluble protein and apoptotic cells [ 12– 12].
One modality that has been able to induce durable complete regressions in patients with melanoma has been adoptive cell therapy (ACT).
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) for atherosclerosis is a new treatment modality that has been proven to induce plaque regression in animal atherosclerosis models [ 4, 5].
However, to use all these bonding modalities, the Zn2+ ion had either to induce folding of the polymer around itself (see [ 129]) or to bind several polymer molecules together.
