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This approach is particularly designed for classification of datasets with a small number of samples and a high percentage of missing values where available missing value treatment approaches do not usually work well.
No variable had more than 5% missing values; where missing values existed, they were inputed using the relevant mean [33].
Because some covariates could be missing for patients based on chart review, we added a category for missing values where applicable.
We imputed missing values where necessary as described below.
We show that conventional imputation of 2-dye CDNA data gives biased estimates of expression for missing values where only one channel is missing.
This approach can be extended to cases in which multiple variables have missing values, where the sample is split into cases with a given variable observed, or missing.
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A missing value, where no protein is observed, in the abundance profile of either protein considered, does not count toward valid comparisons.
It should be noted that there was a large number of missing values for SES (where occupational information was insufficient for classification), so only about 77% of cases could be used for analyses including this variable.
With the exception of calculating SIRS criteria, where missing values were treated as normal, missing data were not replaced and a reduced number (n) reported where they ocurred.
In most instances the missing values occurred in questionnaires where only positive responses were marked (ie, GP only gave a response for cases where he/she would prescribe) and it was therefore assumed that the missing values were negative responses (ie, GP would not prescribe for that case).
This approach depended on the domains at the dimensions where missing values exist and a large number of fuzzy observations would be generated for each input.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com