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Pseudo-marginal methods instead integrate across the missing data using a Monte Carlo estimate for the likelihood, generated from multiple independent simulations from the model.
The following factors were investigated: rotating vs. static gantry modes with and without compensation of missing data using the discrete cosine transform (DCT) method, two levels of depth-encoding, and positron annihilation effects for 18F.
We dealt with the missing data using established epidemiologic methods.
We first imputed the missing data using mice (multiple imputation algorithm), based on 30 multiple imputed datasets.
ANOVA was implemented to all parameters, except for those data with unbalanced sample size and missing data using the GLM statistical analyses.
Expectation Maximization (EM) algorithm is often used for filling in missing data using available data from the entire time series (Junninen et al. 2004; Dempster et al. 1977).
The predicted value for the observed data is then matched to a predicted value of the missing data using, say, a nearest neighbor distance metric.
For the performance analyses, we imputed missing data using Hierarchical Multiple Imputation (HMI) with the hmi package in R. We discuss the rate of missing data in the "Participation" section below.
Alternatively, if the meaning of missing values cannot be established, researchers may impute missing data using clearly specified assumptions about the meaning of missing values.
Various simulation studies have shown that imputing missing data using maximum likelihood (ML) estimation produces better estimates than does listwise or pairwise deletion, or mean imputation [60], [61].
We addressed missing data using pairwise deletion.
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