As evident, in the after lunch session, time since last meal was significantly shorter than in the before lunch session.
Twenty-one adult patients were randomised to receive ghrelin on days 1 and 8 and placebo on days 4 and 11 or vice versa, given intravenously over a 60-min period before lunch: 10 received 2 μg kg−1 (lower-dose) ghrelin; 11 received 8 μg kg−1 (upper-dose) ghrelin.
Thirty participants (15 females; 15 males) attended the laboratory on 4 occasions to receive a low (f = 240 ml, 3.6 kJ/g; m = 300 ml, 3.6 kJ/g) or high (f = 480 ml, 1.8 kJ/g; m = 600 ml, 1.8 kJ/g) volume tomato soup preload 30 min before a sandwich lunch with either single or a variety of fillings.
The participant gathers saliva in a test tube the day before the interview at three occasions; 30 min after awakening, immediately before lunch, and before going to bed.
Using a counterbalanced within-subjects design, 18 unrestrained lean male volunteers consumed 300 ml of carbohydrate-enriched (CHO), protein-enriched and low-energy control (327 kJ) dairy fruit drinks, 120 min and 30 min before an ad libitum lunch.
Thirty-four healthy male and female volunteers were provided with a standard breakfast, then consumed the test product mid-morning, 90 min before an ad libitum lunch, which was followed by an ad libitum dinner.
Standard deviation of beat-to-beat intervals (SDNN) was analysed at baseline and at end of study for 20 min in both the LD and UD; and in the UD, in addition, 30 min before infusion until after lunch on treatment days.
In addition, all participants provided four saliva samples (on waking, 30 min later, between 11 and 1 p.m., before lunch and between 8 and 10 p.m., at least 2 h after evening meal) over two consecutive days to assess cortisol levels.
As shown, the distribution of bids in the before-lunch treatment is shifted more to the right with respect to the after-lunch treatment.
