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This implies that mild uncoupling is not able to substantially block OXPHOS, hence ATP synthesis in the long term.
However, recent studies using cultured mammalian neurons suggest that mild uncoupling is not protective against ROS-production (Johnson-Cadwell et al., 2007; Tretter and Adam-Vizi, 2007).
We also conclude that UCP2-mediated mild uncoupling is initiated only when free FAs are directly cleaved off the phospholipids at the UCP2 vicinity (7) by iPLA2γ (for UCP1 see Ref. 12).
Remarkably, a study by Rohas et al. has shown that once mild uncoupling is set, cells trigger a compensatory mechanism where PGC-1α is activated and orchestrate a signalling cascade to compensate the reduction in ATP levels [ 22].
As there is a growing evidence that a mild uncoupling is a very important mechanism of cardioprotection (for recent reviews, see [ 28, 29]), our results imply that both -epicatechin and procyanidin B2 could be beneficial in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases and metabolic stress.
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Our findings indicate that ROS inhibition through mitochondrial-targeted antioxidant or mild mitochondrial uncoupling is beneficial for sperm cryopreservation in yellow catfish.
Indeed, mild mitochondrial uncoupling is a highly effective intervention to prevent the formation of ROS [9], [17].
We show that mild chemical uncoupling is able to reduce several aspects of HSC activation indicating that HSC mitochondrial metabolism may be a new target in the prevention of liver fibrosis.
These results suggest that both endogenous HNE production and high membrane potential are required before mild uncoupling will be triggered to attenuate mitochondrial ROS production.
Since UCP2 and UCP3 are thought to be functionally similar (Echtay et al., 2001, 2003), the present work suggests that there are secondary factors that affect lifespan due to mild uncoupling, which are independent of ROS.
In all, these findings strongly suggest that chronic muscle-restricted mitochondrial uncoupling is able to induce a mild but clear motor neuron pathology, likely as a result of the progressive degenerative process initiated at the NMJ.
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