Language barriers can exist not only for new migrants of non-English speaking backgrounds, but also, as reported by respondents, long-standing elderly migrants who may revert to their first language and culture due to age-related neuro-cognitive conditions.
Hence, to test the third hypothesis (that the contact rates of migrants and of non-migrants are correlated with contact time), we used three time indicators from the PIAAC paradata for the first contact (attempt),10 namely the time of day, the day of the week, and the period of the year.
This might be problematic since other systematic reviews comparing the perinatal health of migrants to non-migrants [ 125, 126] had varied outcomes between US and European regions.
In this study we found that migrants' risk of non-spontaneous PTD increased with the length of residence in Norway, whereas this was not the case for spontaneous PTD.
We also had no feasible way to compare the risk preferences of migrants with those of non-migrants in the migrant origin countries.
The largest number of migrants from non English-speaking countries working at Wittenoom was from Italy.
Several studies contribute to a body evidence about the higher rates of depression after birth amongst migrant women of non-English speaking background compared to native born women [ 30].
Finally, the findings from the literature on COB were incorporated into the population selection method for a study investigating pregnancy outcomes among women of refugee background, compared to migrant women of non-refugee background.
This also explains the significant difference between the total income of migrant and that of non-migrant households8.
That means boosting co-operation between law enforcement agencies, stopping the transit of migrants in non-EU countries and "establishing a more effective process of returning illegal migrants".
As a final measure of the entrepreneurial prowess of migrants, one may compare the average performance of migrant enterprises to that of non-migrants.
