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It is possible that our main findings, including the "daughter-in-law penalty", might reflect confounding by underlying common causes - for example, daughters-in-law may be selectively recruited into providing care for sicker relatives.
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However this may reflect confounding by treatment indication rather than a true drug effect.
This could arise from less favorable parenting but also could reflect confounding from the socioeconomic circumstances.
Therefore, the adjusted odds ratios used for our analysis do not accurately reflect confounding by indication.
This association may very well reflect confounding by other unmeasured factors [ 55].
We hypothesized that this association reflects confounding by cardiovascular disease (CVD) and that stratification by CVD biomarkers, cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and N-terminal fragment of prohormone brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), might change this association.
Rather the excess risk probably reflects confounding by lifestyle factors such as sexual habits.
Because this was an observational study, there is an inherent possibility that the group differences might reflect residual confounding by differences between women who smoke and those who do not.
An additional concern is that the observed associations might reflect residual confounding by smoking and reverse causation, if heavy smokers dying during the follow-up were unable to be physically active.
7 35–37 Nevertheless, to the extent that social and psychological problems lead patients to receive hypnotics, and to the extent that these problems cause death through pathways independent of hypnotics, our findings might reflect some confounding by those conditions.
These would affect periodontal status, and thus our findings could reflect confounding by omitting these variables.
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