After fungal retting, hemp stem samples for microbial evolution study and enzyme activity measurements were stored frozen, while for tensile test, chemical composition analysis and composite manufacturing, the samples were dried at 40oC directly after treatment.
After field retting, hemp stem samples for microbial evolution study and enzyme activity measurements were stored frozen until analysis, while for tensile test, chemical composition analysis and composite manufacturing, the samples were dried at 40oC directly after treatment.
In this review, we summarize drivers of microbial diversity that have been identified, such as mutation rate and environmental influences, and discuss how knowledge gained from microbial experimental evolution studies may guide us to identify and understand important selective factors that promote intra-tumor heterogeneity.
Parallel evolution has best been documented in microbial experimental evolution studies (Rainey and Travisano 1998; Gerstein et al. 2012; Heron and Doebli 2013).
However, these populations also evolved for fewer generations than most microbial experimental evolution studies (e.g., Araya et al. 2010; Charusanti et al. 2010), which may have limited the opportunity for new mutations to accumulate.
The extensive diversity and ecological fitness experienced during microbial evolution was confirmed by studies on the distribution of phenazine genes in different phenazine-producing bacteria originating from various environmental niches [4], [5].
As a consequence, the gene histories for a large majority of their genes are discordant, which means that the traditional tree of life model is very much a problematic framework to study microbial evolution.
The most stalwart defence of the tree of life in recent years came not from biologists, but from a historian [ 100], and it could be that the most tree-prone among microbiologists would defend the method of using trees to study microbial evolution more vociferously than they might defend any particular tree itself [ 17].
In addition to its limits in accounting for the different evolutionary processes emphazised by the prokaryote/eukaryote divide, there are many methodological and epistemological reasons why tree-monism may not be any longer the most scientifically fruitful position from which to study microbial evolution.
In particular, experimental evolution studies of microbial populations, which exist as clonal populations that can diversify into multiple subclones, have revealed important evolutionary processes driving heterogeneity within a population.
