How developing fish embryos and larvae survive microbial attacks is one of the central problems for reproductive and developmental immunology, but little information as such is available to date.
If the same proteins involved in preventing microbial attack are involved in sperm/egg recognition, this could lead to the rapid evolution of sperm proteins to keep up with the ever-changing egg proteins.
If the microbial attack is successfully and sufficiently embanked in this first phase, the inflammation is - according to the model of the critical pathway - restricted to the marginal gingiva (resulting in gingivitis) [ 11].
Plant defense in response to microbial attack is regulated through a complex network of signaling pathways that involve three signaling molecules: salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA) and ethylene (ET) [ 27].
Biodegradability of synthetic polymers with chemical groups that are susceptible to microbial attack can be carried out with polycaprolactone, poly-β-hydroxyalkanoates and oil-based polymers (Leja and Lewandowicz 2010a, b; Song et al. 2009).
Attacks are unpredictable.
For example, Wang et al. [16] have recently demonstrated by an in vitro assay system of complement activity that the the protection of early embryos of zebrafish Danio rerio against microbial attack can be attributed to maternal complement components operating via the alternative pathway (AP).
The structure of lignocellulose has evolved to protect the cell wall from microbial attack, which is known as biomass recalcitrance.
The innate immune system provides the first line of defence against microbial attack, and is induced by recognition of microbial components, known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or microbial-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs), by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs).
Larval provisions of the Philanthini, by comparison, might be particularly prone to microbial attack since bees are likely to obtain a range of microorganisms while foraging on flowers e.g. via contaminated pollen [ 67, 68] or by transmission from other flower visitors [ 69, 70].
