The attachment methods include adsorption, encapsulation, entrapment, covalent binding, and cross-linking [4].
The most common methods include adsorption onto nanoparticle surfaces, the addition of a second layer, the post addition of water soluble ligands, and the coating of functional materials to yield organic inorganic hybrids, etc.
Apart from these studies, other studies currently in progress at the NUS Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering include studies in wastewater treatment, reuse, and recycling, which focus on the use of physicochemical and biological methods, including adsorption, solid-liquid separation, and membrane systems.
Several traditional methods including adsorption, coagulation, flocculation, ozonation, membrane-filtration, ion-exchange, oxidation, and chemical precipitation are known for the treatment of dye-containing effluents [1, 2].
Various physical, chemical and biological methods, including adsorption, biosorption coagulation and flocculation, advanced oxidation, ozonation, membrane filtration and liquid liquid extraction, have been widely used for the treatment of dye-bearing wastewater [2, 6, 7, 8].
Conventional methods including adsorption by various sorbents (Gupta et al. 2015), biosorption (Moussavi and Barikbin 2010), reduction (An et al. 2014), solvent extraction (Pagilla and Canter 1999), reverse osmosis (Lin et al. 2014) and ion exchange (Pehlivan and Cetin 2009) have been reported for chromium removal.
For the treatment of industrial textile dye containing effluents, various physical and chemical treatment methods including adsorption, coagulation, precipitation, filtration, and oxidation have been extensively used.
Highly dispersed Pt Ru particles with different atomic ratios supported on carbon nanotubes were synthesized using an easy two-step synthesis method including adsorption and pyrolysis.
Conventional methods of dyeing wastewater treatment include adsorption, flocculation, ozonation, advanced oxidation using UV/H2O2 or UV/TiO2, and biological oxidation.
Methods commonly used for immobilization of microbes include adsorption or attachment to a carrier, physical entrapment in polymers, microencapsulation, and membrane entrapment.
These methods include fluorescent indicator adsorption [4], infrared (IR)/Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy [7], nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy [8], mass spectrometry (MS) [3, 6], gas chromatography (GC) [9], and so on.
