We achieved a surface quality approaching the atomic limit by further applying a series of oxidation and HF-etching steps15 (see Methods and Supplementary Information).
The methods of optical microscopy, electron microscopy, X-ray crystallography, and nuclear magnetic resonance increasingly are being combined in hybrid method approaches to achieve an integrated view of macromolecular complexes that span from cellular context to atomic detail.
Quantitative determinations of ions in a variety of media have been performed traditionally via one of three approaches: optical instrumental methods (e.g., atomic absorption, and inductively-coupled plasma-optical emission or mass spectrometry), "wet" methods, or ion-selective sensors.
My work uses methods from atomic, molecular, and optical physics.
The applications of these methods to atomic clocks are discussed.
As we will describe in detail in this section, various single-molecule approaches, such as single-molecule fluorescence-based methods, atomic force microscopy, and magnetic tweezers assays, have provided a detailed picture of transcription initiation.
The unit-by-unit approach mimics the peptide synthesis method, offers atomic control of the structure, but is inefficient in synthesizing large structures such as nanocages.
Single-molecule methods, such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and fluorescence-based approaches, have provided insights into how RNAP locates its promoter and unwinds the DNA duplex.
It is used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding.
X-ray crystallography is related to several other methods for determining atomic structures.
