Androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT) by either a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist or bilateral orchiectomy improves disease-related outcomes of men with prostate cancer but has a variety of adverse metabolic effects including obesity, increased abdominal girth, increased triglycerides, and insulin resistance.
In turn, increased O2− levels can trigger a number of metabolic effects, including protein and membrane oxidation, induction of antioxidant enzymes and inactivation of [4Fe-4S] clusters from certain dehydratases [5] [9].
In conclusion, we have shown that EPO when expressed in supra-physiological levels has substantial metabolic effects including protection against diet-induced obesity and normalisation of glucose sensitivity associated with a shift to increased fat metabolism in the muscles.
Besides Ca2+ signaling, the binding of GLP-1 to its receptor also results in the activation of protein kinase-B (PKB/Akt) [27], [28], [29] and PKB activation in other cell types has been linked to various metabolic effects, including glucose transport in muscle [30] glycogen synthesis [31] and lipolysis [32].
This results in diverse metabolic effects including glycogen accumulation in the liver, kidneys and intestine, hypoglycaemia, hyperuricaemia and lactic acidosis.
AMPK has several important metabolic effects, including increasing muscle glucose uptake [ 4, 5] and ameliorating insulin resistance [ 6].
However, rapamycin treatment also showed the detrimental metabolic effects, including hyperinsulinemia, hyperlipidemia, glucose intolerance and insulin resistance.
The use of antipsychotics, especially atypical antipsychotics (AAPs), is associated with serious adverse metabolic effects, including weight gain, hyperlipidemia and glucose intolerance [ 2], and other [ 3].
Though were shown with additional pleiotropic vasculoprotective effects, particularly in high dose, the potent statins such as atorvastatin may cause some unfavorable metabolic effects including the exacerbation of insulin resistance [[ 4],[ 6]].
Hypomagnesaemia can cause cardiac arrhythmias, neuromuscular irritability, hypertension and vasoconstriction (including constriction of coronary arteries), as well as metabolic effects including decreased insulin sensitivity [ 12, 13], all of which are extremely undesirable, especially in patients who have undergone cardiac surgery.
