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Two results confirm that the biomarkers are not mere confounding with aging.
It needs to be clarified whether brachial artery diameter per se is a mere confounding factor or a manifestation of atherosclerosis for interpretation of the value of FMD.
Possible explanations for this association are an influence of smoking on FGF23 production, an influence of smoking on FGF23 sensitivity or mere confounding by other factors that directly influence FGF23 levels.
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In this scheme, the mere presence of the priest's wife confounded that goal, and thus she incurred the suspicion, and quite often the loathing, of parishioners and church reformers.
That a tree should let itself produce a weight of fruit beyond the carrying weight of its branches, should so utterly confound its procreative imperative, was no mere aberration.
On the other hand, the mere suspicion that an observed association is due to confounding does not conform to scientific reasoning because it cannot be refuted by a finite sequence of empirical tests.
For this year Hollywood confounded the critics who dismiss it as a mere junk factory, defied those who repeat the dread charge of "dumbing down" - and produced a clutch of substantial, thoughtful films.
Confounding the many critics who long called the international tribunal here a mere fig leaf for Western shame, the court dealing with Yugoslav war crimes has just completed an extraordinary month.
As well, they may benefit from the mere fact that they participated in a clinical trial; however, at least this effect would not be confounded by any formal intervention (although, see Discussion, re: self-treatments).
Mere paranoia?
It was confounding.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com