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Uniform dispersion of silicalite nanocrystals throughout the Sil-PFA composite membrane surfaces was clearly observed (Figure 5b, c).

After annealing (at 375°C), the extra parylene covering tips of CNTs on the membrane surfaces was removed by Ar/O2 plasma-enhanced oxidation.

Permeate flux was monitored during the filtration, and bacterial adhesion to the membrane surfaces was observed using a confocal laser scanning microscope.

The chemical composition of the modified PVDF membrane surfaces was characterized by attenuated total reflectance (ATR) FT-IR spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

The chemical composition of membrane surfaces was determined by using a VG Scientific XPS with a Mg Kα X-ray source operating at 280 W, 15 kV × 25 mA.

The effect of curvature on particle transport in four spacer-filled channel configurations with permeable membrane surfaces was analyzed by considering the fluid drag, body force and lift force exerted on the particles.

Water contact angles data, which are indicative of wettability of membrane surfaces, were obtained at 25°C.

The prepared membrane surfaces were modified by octyltrichlorosilane to render them hydrophobic for desalination purposes.

Segregated and dispersed PEGylated domains on PSf membrane surfaces were achieved by LIPS and VIPS.

Cell adhesion assays on different membrane surfaces were also performed by using a standard count method.

Membrane surfaces were first cleaned and activated by exposing them to O2 plasmas.