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Our results are robust to considering the severity of fraud, excluding firms cross-listing in other jurisdictions, using alternative measures of fraud, accounting for the self-selection of auditors, and controlling for other corporate governance mechanisms.
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Indeed, while larger companies expect — and can usually afford — to pay for some measure of click fraud, smaller companies have no choice but to ferret out inaccuracies, Mr. Sullivan said.
Since electoral fraud is hard to measure, and allegations of fraud abound in both places, it would be hard to claim any clear ranking between the two cities in that area.
While we have taken measures to detect and reduce the risk of fraud, these measures need to be continually improved and may not be effective against new and continually evolving forms of fraud or in connection with new product offerings.
This Joint Declaration, produced by the banks and supported by the police, will make it more difficult for criminals to deceive consumers, and it is welcomed by government as an important part of the armoury of fraud prevention measures".
However, critics have warned the measures could lead to increased levels of fraud.
Prosecutors, investigators and industry observers said it was hard to measure the scope of this type of fraud, but most agreed it was widespread.
China's media regulator is to bring in a series of measures to tackle fraud in cinemas, as film revenues there could have been hugely underestimated.
So alongside plans to create a new universal credit, the bill contains a series of measures to tackle fraud and error in the benefits system, which the government believes can save £2bn a year.
But critics argued the evidence of fraud hardly justifies the restrictive measures.
That means any penalties for those accused of fraud or other misconduct would be measured in dollars, not jail terms.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com