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As an alternative, quasi-experimental designs may provide valid evidence of influence if they are well-designed.
Regression discontinuity (RD) is a quasi-experimental design that may provide valid estimates of treatment effects in case of continuous outcomes.
The study of the phases of the moon, for example, may provide valid scientific "knowledge" about whether a certain night was dark, and if darkness is a fact in issue, the knowledge will assist the trier of fact.
While the self-report SDQ was designed for youths aged 11 years and over, the current data confirm that the scale may provide valid information about psychopathological symptoms in children as young as 8 years.
However, well-designed retrospective observational studies may provide valid results without systematic overestimation, bias or predilection.
Evidence suggests that proxy reports by parents may provide valid estimates of HRQOL in children [ 15].
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Some students may not provide valid answers and may also underreport the level of smoking since the data collected are based on a self-administered questionnaire.
In addition, the possibility of information bias cannot be excluded given that some students may not provide valid answers and also may underreport the level of smoking since the data collected are based on a self-administered questionnaire.
If these variables are ignored, quantitative methods designed to identify trends or disease clusters may not provide valid results.
The biomarkers may also provide valid internal dosimeters to differentiate between groups having smaller exposure differentials, but our data do not permit us to assess this possibility.
For example, a model validated in one community over a particular time period to support an early warning system may not provide valid predictions in other communities or at other temporal scales.
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