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When working with spatially autocorrelated variables, OLS regression models may provide biased parameter estimates, which can lead to incorrect inferences [33].
This is mainly due to the fact that bacteria have a core set of conserved and inherited genes, which may be used to establish phylogenies reflecting their true evolution, and a set of genes acquired by lateral gene transfer or recombination, which may provide biased phylogenies [45].
Therefore, the bioactivity profiles that contain primarily skewed inactivity data may provide biased information.
Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that are inappropriately designed or executed may provide biased findings and mislead clinical practice.
Direct measures (e.g., observation by a social worker) may provide biased estimates of caregiver behaviors due to the Hawthorne effect and substantial respondent burden and cost.
An additional limitation was the complete case methods approach, which is commonly used in public health research but may provide biased estimates when there is a high prevalence of missing data.
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Case-control studies of outbreaks and of sporadic cases of infectious diseases may provide a biased estimate of the infection rate ratio, due to selecting controls that are not at risk of disease.
A hypothesis to explain this difference is that qualitative techniques capture the feelings of few more outspoken women and may provide a biased perception of the group.
Then, the composite indicator of gender equality, i.e. the GES, expressed as factor scores obtained through classical factor analysis and used in a regression framework may provide less biased results than expected.
Because the critical time period for the potential effects of DBP exposure on fetal growth is uncertain, the use of multiple, shorter exposure windows may provide less biased risk estimates (Hertz-Picciotto et al. 1996).
Since the percentage of zeros is high, two-part marginalized models may provide less biased estimates and better model fits than one-part generalized linear models.
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