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While these data generally suggest that either acute or chronic ethanol treatment may induce autophagy and contribute to ethanol-induced malfunction of cardiomyocytes, no clear autophagic flux data were shown in these studies.
In 2007, the ATG16L1 gene has been implicated in Crohn's disease, which may induce autophagy and hinder the body's ability to attack invasive bacteria.
The age-related accumulation of misfolded or damaged proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) induces apoptosis due to ER stress response [18] while cytosolic aggregation (aggresome) may induce autophagy and apoptosis by ER-independent mechanisms [23].
In contrast, no differences in LC3-II/β-actin ratios were observed between control- and rapamycin-treated non-transgenic littermates (Fig. 3a b), suggesting that rapamycin may induce autophagy as a response to high Aβ levels in hippocampi of transgenic PDAPP mice.
More recent studies have indicated that HDAC inhibitors may induce autophagy in prostate cancer cells.
In addition, glucose deprivation may induce autophagy by oxidative stress [ 45].
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These findings in flies and mammals suggest that disrupting ESCRT function does not only inhibit autophagosomal-lysosomal fusion but may also induce autophagy.
In many other cellular systems, TGF- β1 may also induce autophagy, but a link between its fibrogenic and autophagic effects is unknown.
PB is an analogue of butyrate and it is quite likely that PB in combination with Vitamin D3 may also induce autophagy and LL-37 mediated killing of Mtb ex vivo.
Recent work has indicated that in some circumstances 3-MA may in fact induce autophagy.
Because of the paradoxical roles of autophagy, ceramide-dependent autophagy could either promote cell death (by inducing autophagy cell death, or "switching" the cell from autophagy to apoptosis) [ 27, 122– 124] or under certain conditions may induce cytoprotective autophagy [ 25, 125].
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