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Because SD was a novel activator of AMPK and may indirectly activate VPS34, we assessed the formation of the VPS34/VPS15/Beclin-1/UVRAG tetramer, which is the active form in the VPS34 pool.
79, 84, 87 Additionally, TZDs may indirectly activate AMPK through the effects of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ to stimulate adiponectin secretion (which will be described in more detail).
In addition, ER may indirectly activate epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR) via coactivators, including src, leading to activation of EGFR [ 23– 25].
It is therefore attractive to hypothesize that GLP-1 may indirectly activate β-cell energy metabolism, thereby raising levels of cellular ATP, and possibly influencing other metabolic coupling factors, via its effect on cellular levels of Ca2+ and cAMP.
Esmolol may indirectly activate PKA at early reperfusion through enhanced endogenous β2-AR stimulation.
In addition, it has been proposed that RA may indirectly activate IRF1 expression by a mechanism involving NF- κB.
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These signaling pathways may directly activate transcription of genes involved in cell survival, proliferation and migration, but may also indirectly activate the AR pathway in a ligand-independent manner.
This suggests that the many genes that are activated by EWS/FLI-1, but not by direct FLI-1 DNA binding, may be indirectly activated.
Indeed, Hif1-α may be indirectly activated in myeloid cells by pro-inflammatory stimuli such as LPS and the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α [ 21, 22].
The IME4 gene is only expressed in diploid cells and it was thought that the a1- α2 complex may be indirectly activating its expression by repressing a repressor protein, such as RME1.
PFCs may also indirectly activate PPARα by interacting with fatty acid binding proteins (Luebker et al. 2002).
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