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In addition, most studies used surface electrodes which may cause confounding by various factors including pressure, skin moisture, electrode contact and abrasion of the stratum corneum.
Owing to the absence of original information, data for survival were extracted from eligible studies based on univariate analysis without adjustment for age, gender, and other risk factors (e.g., dietary history and genetic predisposition to disease), which may cause confounding bias.
Such sources may cause confounding, and though we adjusted for annoyance from these sources, some residual confounding may be present, particularly from road traffic and railway noise.
Duration of breastfeeding and the risk of asthma could have common determinants, which may cause confounding of the relation between breastfeeding and asthma.
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Such a task structure may cause confounded effects and it should be improved in future studies.
The point estimates (hazard ratios) differ greatly between the analyses conducted by Horsdal et al. (17) and ourselves when compared with the analysis by Khalangot et al. (18), likely because Khalangot et al. adjusted for few variables, many of which may have caused confounding.
Choice of endpoints may also cause confounding of results.
This self-selection causes confounding and it may seem natural that these individuals will have better outcomes, even after controlling for all these factors, because there may be additional unknown confounders which we could not control for.
These unmeasured factors may cause residual confounding, which was not taken into account.
The lack of this kind of information may cause serious confounding bias.
Lacking of the information for the data analysis may cause serious confounding bias.
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