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Our findings suggest that environmental exposures that result in the in utero formation of bulky DNA adducts also may affect prenatal growth, and that this potential effect may be reduced by high maternal fruit and vegetable consumption.
To gain a better understanding, the mechanisms by which some of these separate factors may affect prenatal care utilisation need to be explored further, for instance, the possible reasons behind multiparous women's inadequate prenatal care utilisation, such as less appreciation of prenatal care or the lack of childcare for the other children [ 13].
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To affect prenatal proportions of FOXP3+CD25high T cells, environmental microbial load might have to reach a considerable magnitude, which may not occur at a Swedish dairy farm.
In our case, therefore, the variables we use as instruments for prenatal care use should first, affect prenatal care use or be associated with prenatal care use; second, they should be unrelated to mother or household characteristics; and third, they should be related to birth weight only through their association with prenatal care [37].
[34] The biological explanation underlying this time-specific association remains unknown but prenatal stress may affect both the timing or the velocity of the pubertal growth spurt [32] and the risk of future obesity,[5] which may be closely linked.
Prenatal factors may affect adult obesity "through programming of structural and functional abnormalities of various endocrine systems" [ 38] and programming the mass and distribution of adipose tissue [ 8].
Exposures during different windows may affect different molecular targets, including prenatal imprinting, the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons, hormone receptors, and aromatase action (Schoeters et al. 2008).
At least one animal study suggests that prenatal BPA exposure may affect social behavior and brain gene expression and that the effects may extend to future generations.
In addition, prenatal PAH exposures may affect epigenetic programming with neurologic consequences (Barker 2004; Perera et al. 2009a; Schwartz 2004; Wilson and Jones 1983).
Ultrasound measurements constitute a promising tool to examine how early prenatal OC exposure may affect fetal growth and more studies are needed.
Prenatal opioid exposure may affect children's cognitive and psychomotor performance differently at different ages resulting in neurobehavioral outcomes that might improve or worsen over time [ 5].
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