Although avian cytokines have been poorly defined, they have the potential to control infectious diseases and can act as vaccine adjuvants that may specifically activate immune systems leading to effective protection [ 9].
Furthermore, Kupffer cell secreted cytokines may attract and activate immune cells which in certain cases can exacerbate the initial damage (Roberts et al. 2007).
These results suggest Wolbachia may activate the immune pathway but inhibit spermatogenesis.
It is well established that bacterial DNA sequences, by virtue of different methylation pattern from mammalian DNA, may activate the immune system (Sato et al, 1996; Klinman et al, 1997).
Indirectly, however, the portal drainage of visceral fat provides direct hepatic access to free fatty acids and adipokines that may activate hepatic immune mechanisms with production of inflammatory mediators, such as CRP (Despres and Lemieux, 2006).
During severe sepsis and septic shock, LPS may activate overt immune and inflammatory responses, which can result in hypovolemia by capillary leakage of fluid and protein [ 22], cause pathological vasodilation by nitric oxide production [ 23], and decrease cardiac contractility by myocardial suppression [ 24].
To activate immune system, DCs may be matured by many factors like bacterial CpG-DNA, Lipopolysaccharaide (LPS) and other microbial products.
However, it is conceivable that tolerogenic DCs may react differently to DCs primed to activate immune responses.
Antiestrogens may also employ RCAS1 as a molecular switch to activate immune cytotoxicity against tumor cells [ 25].
We hypothesize that autoimmune damage to the retina and optic nerve may be caused directly by the AAbs, or indirectly by a non-immune cause that contributes to tissues damage but may activate the secondary immune responses as a result of neuronal degeneration.
