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With ρr at approximately 2300 kg m−3 and ρw at approximately 1230 kg m−3 for brine (assuming a salinity of 350,000 ppm at a temperature of 100 °C and 20 MPa pressure; Batzle and Wang 1992), Equation 3 indicates that the maximum upward head gradient is limited to about 1.
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The maximum upward movement of helical piles group is less than that of single helical pile.
As helical piles spacing increased, the maximum upward movement is approximated to that of single piles.
The maximum upward movement of helical piles group is less than that of single pile.
In this map, a progressive and regular distance of upward continuation is defined at every 1 km and the maximum upward height is 10 km.
We found that oxygen excess defects in TiO2 shifted the valence band maximum upward and improved the visible-light absorption.
The necessary ingredient for upward flow is, of course, an upward head gradient.
When upward flow occurs, there are two fundamental controls on the upward head gradient (d h/d z).
In sum, rapid upward migration of HF fluid or brine via bedrock would require the co-occurrence of upward head gradients and high bedrock permeabilities.
We show that in cases where upward head gradients exist, permeability is low, and therefore, vertical fluxes are low.
Natural upward head gradients do occur, and are driven by either topography or relict overpressure at depth.
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