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Previous studies have quantified bee movements by using (1) indirect measures such as foraging trip duration [22], [23], homing abilities [24] [26], or modeling of maximum foraging ranges [21], or (2) direct measures such as mark-reobservation experiments [27] [31], genetic microsatellite approaches [32] [34], or harmonic radar [1], [35].
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The maximum distance from which bees return after displacement varies widely from 200 m in Pithitis smaragdula [27] to 23 km in Euplusia surinamensis [28], [29], and is believed to be a good indicator for a species' maximum foraging range [30].
In addition, it has long been hypothesised that neighbouring colonies of conspecifics will spatially segregate in foraging areas to reduce intra-specific competition and that colony size may be limited by available habitat within the maximum foraging range (Adams, 2001).
Neotropical orchid bees (Euglossini) are often cited as classic examples of trapline-foragers with potentially extensive foraging ranges.
Bee foraging ranges and their relationships to body size.
In a fragmented landscape, we would expect larger, but spatially more clustered, foraging ranges.
The scales followed previous studies on foraging ranges and scale-dependent effects in flower-visiting insects such as bees [ 43- 46].
When beetles were present, earthworms migrated to the deeper soil, probably to avoid the beetles' foraging range.
Nonetheless, different species certainly have different foraging ranges e.g. [35] [37], which suggests that the landscape surrounding foraging and nesting sites will affect different species differently.
The typical honeybee foraging range depends on the abundance of food, water and propolis around the hive.
Among livestock, goats were estimated to consume the maximum forage (41% to 43% of the total forage consumed), followed by sheep (26% to 27%).
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