In contrast, low levels of genetic differentiation at cpDNA detected among the populations of Alishan, Central and Sheishan Mountain Ranges FSTT = 0.00-0.09) implied that there may exist historical gene flow during the glacial maxima, as the alpine populations migrated downwards and became connected to each other (Table 3).
River flow relates mainly to climate, albeit not in a simple way; for example, in all but Alpine Germany, maximum river flow occurs in winter when evaporation is low, though in the lowlands the peak rainfall is in summer.
Given an estimated coalescence time of the distinct lineages of 10 – 18 kya, the differences in the distributions could hint to either limited maternal gene flow after the Last Glacial Maximum due to the alpine nature of the regions involved or to a stochastic loss of diversity due to environmental events and/or disease episodes occurred at different times and in distinctive regions.
The alpine meadow vegetation canopy had a higher maximum interception ratio and saturation precipitation than alpine swamp vegetation.
For amphibians from alpine areas in Taiwan, such as Bufo bankorensis, the maximum suitable slope is 15°.
In the study area, the retreat of the Alpine glaciers at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) caused base level to lower by approximately 80 m.
Recent studies highlighted the role of Pleistocene climatic cycles in polyploid speciation and of southern Alpine refugia as reservoirs of diversity during glacial maxima.
A recent phylogeographic analysis of cpDNA variations in S. alpina indicated that this alpine shrub survived in multiple refugia during the Last Glacial Maximum and that earlier glaciations may have triggered deep intraspecific divergence (Zhang et al., 2012).
Alpine Experience (00 33 479 062881) runs lessons in technique and ski guiding at Val d'Isère, with maximum group sizes of six.
Alpine ibex reach sexual maturity at eighteen months, but females do not reach their maximum body size for five to six years, and males not for nine to eleven years.
