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SFB are tightly associated with the epithelium, especially in the small intestine, 38 and play a fundamental role in the maturation of intestinal T-cell responses and in the induction of gut inflammation, antimicrobial defence as well as mucosal IgA production.
Because premature births in humans occur before the normal perinatal surge of cortisol (an inducer of the expression of key arginine-synthetic enzymes), its administration may be a useful tool to advance the maturation of intestinal arginine synthesis in preterm neonates.
The maturation of intestinal stem cells is also regulated by the Notch signaling pathway representing another evolutionary conserved signaling system involved in maintaining colon epithelium homeostasis [2] [4], [15] [17].
Though COLO320 cells ranked highest of all intestinal epithelial cells, they also had the highest expression of CDX2, a key player in the maturation of intestinal enterocytes [ 31].
The progressive upregulation of hsa-miR-194 in the squamous to GM to IM sequence is consistent with its biological function: this miRNA is involved in the commitment and maturation of intestinal epithelia, and it is regulated by the hepatocyte nuclear factor 1α.
This was supposed to be relevant to the proper maturation of intestinal immunity, and in particular to impact on the balance between Th1 and Th2 cells [ 38, 39], thus suggesting options for nutritional and dietary intervention, via probiotics, for this type of condition.
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It is well-established that the intestinal microbiota influences the maturation of the intestinal immune system [ 32].
It is well-established that the postnatal intestinal microbiota influences the maturation of the intestinal immune system and that individuals with CD, or with an increased genetic risk of developing CD, have an imbalanced intestinal microbiota, which may potentially enhance the inflammatory response elicited by gluten [ 9, 43- 45].
At the intestinal level, the interplay between gut bacterial colonization, epithelial barrier and gut associated-lymphoid tissue (GALT) plays a crucial role in the development of intestinal function and maturation of the immune system during the first months of life in neonates.
Moreover, by using VillinCre-Blimp1 intestinal knockout mice, Blimp1 was shown to delay maturation of the intestinal epithelium.
Several experiments suggest that BMP signaling is essential for full maturation of the intestinal secretory cell lineage in vivo[ 9], regulates apoptosis of mature colonic epithelial cells [ 10], and inhibits intestinal stem cell self-renewal through suppression of Wnt- ß-catenin signaling [ 11].
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