Although the role of both genetic causes and factors that affect the intrauterine environment (such as maternal rubella and teratogen exposure) in human congenital heart disease is well established (reviewed in 17), the mechanisms by which environmental factors interact with genetic variants to cause birth defects is only beginning to be understood (reviewed in 18).
Maternal exposure, paternal exposure, and both-parent exposure were separately analyzed.
Windows of exposure have been historically important in epidemiologic investigations of thalidomide, retinoic acid (vitamin A), maternal rubella, and radiation (O'Rahilly and Muller 2001).
This study was designed to estimate the current incidence of rubella exposure in pregnancy.
Maternal history in sensorineural hearing-impaired children (case group) according to rubella antibody status is shown in Table 2. Nine mothers (41%) of 22 deaf seropositive children reported a history of rubella infection, rash, or rubella exposure during pregnancy, whereas none of 91 mothers of seronegative deaf children reported these events (p = 0.000).
Maternal rubella virus IgG titer at 4 months' gestation was >400 IU/mL (immune >9).
Therefore, a reduction in the number of deaf children has been used as an indication of reduced maternal rubella infection after the introduction of rubella vaccination programs [ 6].
Nine mothers (41%) of 22 deaf, seropositive children in the present study reported a history of rubella, rash, or rubella exposure during pregnancy.
This design yielded four treatment groups: (NS/0, no maternal Pb, no maternal stress; S/0, no maternal Pb, maternal stress; NS/150, maternal Pb, no maternal stress; and S/150, maternal Pb exposure and maternal stress).
To examine the relationship between maternal stress exposure, stress coping styles, and pregnancy complications.
