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Its specific neurophysiologic role has been assigned to maternal inheritance but is influenced by hormonal and environmental cues as well.
Female bivalves transmit their mitochondria (carrying F mtDNA) to sons and daughters, as in standard maternal inheritance, but males are believed to effectively transmit their mitochondria (via sperm carrying M mtDNA) to only sons (e.g., [ 22] but see [ 23]).
In mice, deletion of the unmethylated copy of the IG-DMR leads to bidirectional LOI of all genes in the imprinted cluster after maternal inheritance, but imprinting is unaltered after paternal transmission of the deleted methylated copy (Lin et al, 2003).
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In metazoans, mitochondria are commonly inherited by strictly maternal inheritance (SMI) (Birky 2001), but, in some bivalve molluscs, two mitochondrial lineages are present, one transmitted through eggs (F-type) and the other through sperm (M-type).
As a result, females inherit mtDNA following usual strict maternal inheritance and males inherit mtDNA from both parents and, therefore, are heteroplasmic (except in the germline).
Sperm mitochondria have high Δ ψm not only in species with strictly maternal inheritance of mitochondria (SMI), but also in species in which mitochondria carried by spermatozoa are transmitted to the next generation [ 3].
One individual exhibited a pattern consistent with paternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA; this individual exhibited a transcription profile suggestive of paternal but inconsistent with maternal inheritance.
Maternal inheritance of mtDNA is the rule in most animals, but the reasons for this pattern remain unclear.
Maternal inheritance is also the rule for cpDNA of angiosperms, but gymnosperms including conifers are typically characterized by paternal inheritance of cpDNA (Neale and Sederoff 1989).
Mitochondria are, therefore, in most cases inherited only from mothers, a pattern known as maternal inheritance.
However, both maternal inheritance and male sterility strategy could only block pollen spreading but not seed dispersal by human errors, animal activity or other accidents.
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